Foundations of Cognitive Bias
Perspektif psikologi evolusioner memprediksi bahwa pikiran dilengkapi dengan mekanisme spesifik fungsi yang diadaptasi untuk tujuan khusus — mekanisme dengan desain khusus untuk memecahkan masalah seperti kawin, yang terpisah, setidaknya sebagian, dari mereka yang terlibat dalam memecahkan masalah pilihan makanan, penghindaran predator, dan pertukaran sosial (misalnya, Kenrick, Neuberg, Griskevicius, Becker, & Schaller, 2010). Dalam evaluasi bias kognitif, mendemonstrasikan kekhususan domain dalam memecahkan masalah tertentu adalah bagian dari pembangunan kasus yang sifatnya telah dibentuk oleh seleksi untuk menjalankan fungsi itu. Fungsi mata yang berkembang, misalnya, adalah untuk memfasilitasi penglihatan karena ia melakukan ini dengan baik (ia menunjukkan kemahiran), ciri-ciri mata memiliki efek umum dan unik untuk memfasilitasi penglihatan (ia menunjukkan kekhususan), dan tidak ada yang masuk akal hipotesis alternatif yang menjelaskan fitur mata.
Beberapa fitur desain yang tampak cacat jika dilihat dengan satu cara terungkap sebagai adaptasi jika dilihat secara berbeda. Jika seseorang hanya mempertimbangkan gagasan bahwa seleksi mendukung maksimalisasi keberhasilan reproduksi langsung, misalnya, fakta bahwa manusia perempuan kehilangan kemampuan reproduksi bertahun-tahun sebelum kematian akan tampak sebagai cacat desain. Namun, ada bukti bahwa wanita dalam masyarakat tradisional dapat meningkatkan kebugaran inklusif mereka dengan mentransfer investasi kepada anak perempuan mereka segera setelah putri mereka mencapai usia reproduksi (Voland & Beise, 2002). Dilihat dari sudut ini, menopause wanita mungkin dirancang dengan sangat baik (Hawkes, 2003).
Pertama, pemilihan mungkin menyukai jalan pintas yang berguna yang cenderung bekerja dalam banyak keadaan, meskipun mereka tidak memenuhi beberapa standar normatif (heuristik); kedua, bias yang tampak bisa muncul jika tugas yang dihadapi bukanlah tugas yang dirancang untuk pikiran (artefak); dan ketiga, bias dapat muncul jika pola respons yang bias terhadap masalah adaptif menghasilkan biaya kesalahan yang lebih rendah daripada pola respons yang tidak bias (bias manajemen kesalahan). Selain menarik dalam dirinya sendiri, penyelidikan bias menawarkan kapasitas untuk mengungkap kontur pikiran yang berevolusi dengan mengungkapkan masalah yang tampaknya telah dirancang untuk dipecahkan: Sedangkan persepsi "akurat" tidak banyak membantu membatasi hipotesis tentang kognitif. desain, menemukan bias seringkali dapat mengungkapkannya.
Sejak edisi asli Buku Pegangan ini, volume pekerjaan yang menyelidiki bias manajemen kesalahan telah berkembang pesat. Oleh karena itu, kami membahas heuristik dan artefak hanya secara singkat dan fokus pada pekerjaan yang lebih baru pada bias manajemen kesalahan (untuk diskusi evolusioner yang lebih rinci tentang heuristik dan artefak, lihat Haselton et al., 2009). Kami tidak bermaksud ketiga kategori bias tersebut menjadi sepenuhnya lengkap atau saling eksklusif; kami menawarkannya sebagai cara yang berguna untuk mengatur penelitian tentang bias kognitif dan mendapatkan wawasan tentang mengapa bias itu ada.
It's my personal online notebook, tapi sepertinya isinya bisa dishare. Feel free to quote by mentioning the source "yang mau kutip jangan lupa sebutkan sumbernya ya" :) semoga bermanfaat..
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Friday, November 13, 2020
Monday, November 9, 2020
Consumer Decision Making
James R. Bettman, Eric J. Johnson, John W. Payne
Duke University, Wharton School University of Pennsylvania, Duke University
This chapter reviews theories and research on consumer decision making. We characterize the properties of the consumer decision-making task and the consumer information environment. The limited information processing capabilities of consumers are addressed, and the choice heuristics used by consumers to cope with difficult decisions are described. Conceptual frameworks for understanding contingent consumer decision making and a review of relevant research on contingent processing are presented. Finally, methods for studying consumer decision making are discussed, and future research opportunities are outlined.
INTRODUCTION
THE CONSUMER DECISION MAKING TASK
The Consumer Information Environment
Other Factors Characterizing Consumer Decision Tasks
How Consumers Cope with Difficult Decision Tasks
THE CONSUMER AS A LIMITED INFORMATION PROCESSOR
Human Memory
Working memory
Long-term memory
Implications of Consumer Processing Limitations
CHOICE HEURISTICS
The weighted additive (WADD) rule
The satisficing (SAT) heuristic
The lexicographic (LEX) heuristic
The elimination-by-aspects (EBA) heuristic
The majority of confirming dimensions (MCD) heuristic
The frequency of good and bad features (FRQ) heuristic
The equal weight (EQW) heuristic
Combined heuristics
Other heuristics
General Properties of Choice Heuristics
Compensatory versus noncompensatory
Consistent versus selective processing
Amount of processing
Alternative-based versus attribute-based processing
Quantitative versus qualitative reasoning
Formation of evaluations
Implementation of Heuristics
CONTINGENT CONSUMER DECISION MAKING
The Concept of Contingent Decision Making
Characteristics of the decision problem
Characteristics of the person
Characteristics of the social context
Conceptual Frameworks for Contingent Decision Making
The cost/benefit framework
A perceptual framework
RESEARCH ON CONTINGENT CONSUMER DECISION MAKING
Problem Factors: Task Variables
Problem size
Time pressure
Response mode
Types of decision task
Information format
Problem Factors: Context Variables
Similarity
Correlated attributes
Comparable versus noncomparable choices
The quality of the alternatives available
Person Factors
Prior knowledge
Information processing abilities
Implications of Contingent Decision Making
METHODS FOR STUDYING CONSUMER DECISION MAKING
Input-Output Approaches
Process-Tracing Approaches
Verbal protocols
Information acquisition approaches
Chronometric analysis
FUTURE RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
Duke University, Wharton School University of Pennsylvania, Duke University
This chapter reviews theories and research on consumer decision making. We characterize the properties of the consumer decision-making task and the consumer information environment. The limited information processing capabilities of consumers are addressed, and the choice heuristics used by consumers to cope with difficult decisions are described. Conceptual frameworks for understanding contingent consumer decision making and a review of relevant research on contingent processing are presented. Finally, methods for studying consumer decision making are discussed, and future research opportunities are outlined.
INTRODUCTION
THE CONSUMER DECISION MAKING TASK
The Consumer Information Environment
Other Factors Characterizing Consumer Decision Tasks
How Consumers Cope with Difficult Decision Tasks
THE CONSUMER AS A LIMITED INFORMATION PROCESSOR
Human Memory
Working memory
Long-term memory
Implications of Consumer Processing Limitations
CHOICE HEURISTICS
The weighted additive (WADD) rule
The satisficing (SAT) heuristic
The lexicographic (LEX) heuristic
The elimination-by-aspects (EBA) heuristic
The majority of confirming dimensions (MCD) heuristic
The frequency of good and bad features (FRQ) heuristic
The equal weight (EQW) heuristic
Combined heuristics
Other heuristics
General Properties of Choice Heuristics
Compensatory versus noncompensatory
Consistent versus selective processing
Amount of processing
Alternative-based versus attribute-based processing
Quantitative versus qualitative reasoning
Formation of evaluations
Implementation of Heuristics
CONTINGENT CONSUMER DECISION MAKING
The Concept of Contingent Decision Making
Characteristics of the decision problem
Characteristics of the person
Characteristics of the social context
Conceptual Frameworks for Contingent Decision Making
The cost/benefit framework
A perceptual framework
RESEARCH ON CONTINGENT CONSUMER DECISION MAKING
Problem Factors: Task Variables
Problem size
Time pressure
Response mode
Types of decision task
Information format
Problem Factors: Context Variables
Similarity
Correlated attributes
Comparable versus noncomparable choices
The quality of the alternatives available
Person Factors
Prior knowledge
Information processing abilities
Implications of Contingent Decision Making
METHODS FOR STUDYING CONSUMER DECISION MAKING
Input-Output Approaches
Process-Tracing Approaches
Verbal protocols
Information acquisition approaches
Chronometric analysis
FUTURE RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
Tuesday, October 13, 2020
The purpose of this study was to summarize findings from empirical applications of the transtheoretical model (TTM) (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983) in the physical activity domain by using the quantitative method of meta-analysis. Ninety-one independent samples from 71 published reports were located that present empirical data on at least one core construct of the TTM applied to exercise and physical activity. In general, results support the application because core constructs differ across stages and most changes are in the direction predicted by the theory. Three general conclusions are offered. First, existing data are unable to confirm whether physical activity behavior change occurs in a series of stages that are qualitatively different or along adjacent segments of an underlying continuum. Second, the growing number of studies that incorporate TTM concepts means that there is an increasing need to standardize and improve the reliability of measurement. Finally, the role of processes of change needs reexamining because the higher order constructs are not apparent in the physical activity domain and stage-by-process interactions are not evident. There now are sufficient data to confirm that stage membership is associated with different levels of physical activity, self-efficacy, pros and cons, and processes of change. Further studies that simply stage participants or examine cross-sectional differences between core constructs of the TTM are of limited use. Future research should examine the moderators and mediators of stage transition.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1207/S15324796ABM2304_2
Marshall, S.J., Biddle, S.J.H. The transtheoretical model of behavior change: a meta-analysis of applications to physical activity and exercise. ann. behav. med. 23, 229–246 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324796ABM2304_2
Abstract
The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) is an integrative framework for understanding how individuals and populations progress toward adopting and maintaining health behavior change for optimal health. The Transtheoretical Model uses stages of change to integrate processes and principles of change from across major theories of intervention, hence the name "Transtheoretical." This model emerged from a comparative analysis of leading theories of psychotherapy and behavior change. The search was for a systematic integration of a field that had fragmented into more than 300 theories of psychotherapy. The comparative analysis identified only 10 processes of change, such as consciousness raising from the Freudian tradition, contingency management from the Skinnerian tradition, and helping relationships from the Rogerian tradition. From the initial studies of smoking, the stage model rapidly expanded in scope to include investigations of and applications to a broad range of health and mental health behaviors. These include alcohol and substance abuse, anxiety and panic disorders, stress and depression, partner violence and bullying, delinquency, eating disorders and obesity, high-fat diets, exercise, HIV/AIDS, use of mammography screening, medication compliance, unplanned pregnancy, pregnancy and smoking, radon testing, sedentary lifestyles, sun exposure, and the practice of preventive medicine. Over time, these studies have expanded, validated, applied, and challenged the core constructs of the Transtheoretical Model. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-17602-004
Prochaska, J. O., Johnson, S., & Lee, P. (2009). The Transtheoretical Model of behavior change. In S. A. Shumaker, J. K. Ockene, & K. A. Riekert (Eds.), The handbook of health behavior change (p. 59–83). Springer Publishing Company.
Friday, October 9, 2020
Hipotesis siklus hidup perilaku
Abstrak
Pengendalian diri, penghitungan mental, dan pembingkaian digabungkan dalam pengayaan perilaku dari teori siklus hidup menabung yang disebut hipotesis behevioral life-cycle (BLC). Asumsi utama teori BLC adalah bahwa rumah tangga memperlakukan komponen kekayaan mereka sebagai sesuatu yang tidak dapat dimakan, meskipun tidak ada penjatahan kredit. Secara khusus, kekayaan diasumsikan dibagi menjadi tiga akun mental: pendapatan saat ini, aset saat ini, dan pendapatan masa depan. Godaan untuk berbelanja dianggap paling besar untuk pendapatan saat ini dan paling tidak untuk pendapatan di masa depan. Dukungan empiris yang cukup besar untuk teori BLC disajikan, terutama diambil dari studi ekonometrik yang diterbitkan.
pengantar
Teori siklus hidup tabungan Modigliani dan Brumberg (1954) dan hipotesis pendapatan permanen serupa Friedman (1957) adalah contoh klasik dari teori ekonomi. Model siklus hidup (LC) membuat beberapa asumsi penyederhanaan untuk mengkarakterisasi masalah optimasi yang terdefinisi dengan baik yang kemudian diselesaikan. Solusi untuk masalah pengoptimalan tersebut memberikan inti teori.
Upaya untuk menguji hipotesis siklus-hidup menemui keberhasilan yang beragam. Seperti yang dirangkum oleh Courant et al. (1986, 279-80), "Tapi untuk semua keanggunan dan rasionalitasnya, model siklus hidup belum teruji dengan baik ... Juga tidak ada upaya untuk menguji model siklus hidup dengan microdata cross-sectional berhasil dengan sangat berhasil . " Berbagai perubahan teori telah diusulkan untuk membantunya mengakomodasi data: menambahkan motif warisan, menghipotesiskan ketidaksempurnaan pasar modal, mengasumsikan bahwa fungsi utilitas untuk konsumsi berubah seiring waktu, atau menentukan bentuk ekspektasi tertentu terkait pendapatan di masa depan. Modifikasi ini sering kali tampak bersifat ad hoc, karena asumsi yang berbeda diperlukan untuk menjelaskan setiap hasil empiris yang tidak normal. Makalah ini menyarankan agar data dapat dijelaskan secara pelit dengan melakukan modifikasi terhadap teori siklus hidup yang agak berbeda semangatnya dengan yang telah dikutip di atas, yaitu modifikasi yang bertujuan untuk membuat teori tersebut lebih realistis secara perilaku. Kami menyebut model yang diperkaya ini sebagai hipotesis Behavioral Life Cycle (BLC).
...
Kesimpulan
Model LC jelas merupakan tradisi arus utama teori ekonomi mikro. Ini adalah tipikal dari pendekatan umum dalam ekonomi mikro, yang menggunakan model pemaksimalan berbasis normatif untuk tujuan deskriptif. Makalah terbaru oleh Hall dan Mishkin (1982) dan Courant et al. (1986) benar-benar kemajuan dalam tradisi LC.
Model kami sangat berbeda dalam semangat. Pertama-tama, agen kami memiliki keterbatasan yang sangat manusiawi, dan mereka menggunakan aturan praktis yang, pada dasarnya, adalah yang terbaik kedua. Sementara model LC adalah kasus khusus dari model kami (jika ada aturan terbaik pertama atau tidak ada masalah pengendalian diri), model kami dikembangkan secara khusus untuk menggambarkan perilaku aktual, bukan untuk mencirikan perilaku rasional. Ini berbeda dari pendekatan standar dalam tiga hal penting.
(1) Konsisten dengan perilaku yang tidak dapat direkonsiliasi dengan fungsi utilitas tunggal.
(2) Ini memungkinkan faktor-faktor "tidak relevan" (yaitu faktor-faktor selain usia dan kekayaan) untuk mempengaruhi konsumsi. Bahkan bentuk pembayarannya pun penting.
(3) Pilihan sebenarnya bisa saja sesuai dengan anggaran yang ditetapkan (sebagai klub Natal).
Hubungan antara model pengendalian diri dan model LC mirip dengan hubungan antara teori prospek Daniel Kahneman dan Arnos Tversky (1979) dan teori utilitas yang diharapkan. Teori utilitas yang diharapkan adalah standar yang mapan untuk pilihan rasional di bawah ketidakpastian. Kegagalannya untuk menggambarkan perilaku individu telah menyebabkan pengembangan model lain (seperti teori prospek) yang tampaknya melakukan pekerjaan yang lebih baik pada tugas-tugas deskripsi dan prediksi. Keunggulan teori prospek sebagai model prediktif, tentunya sama sekali tidak melemahkan nilai teori utilitas yang diharapkan sebagai norma preskriptif. Demikian pula, karena kami memandang model LC sebagai menangkap preferensi perencana kami, kami tidak ingin mempertanyakan nilainya bagi teori ekonomi preskriptif. Model LC juga memiliki peran yang sangat berguna dalam memberikan teori yang dengannya bukti empiris dapat dinilai. Misalnya, penggantian kerugian pensiun satu-ke-satu adalah hasil dari model LC (tanpa warisan), dan banyak penelitian yang kami kutip tidak diragukan lagi didorong oleh kesempatan untuk menguji prediksi ini. Kecukupan tabungan bahkan secara lebih langsung membutuhkan kriteria siklus-hidup tabungan yang sesuai yang dengannya tabungan aktual dapat dibandingkan.
Kadang-kadang kami berpendapat bahwa penggunaan asumsi ad hoc, yang ditambahkan ke teori setelah bukti empiris yang anomali diajukan, membuat model LC tidak stabil. Masuk akal untuk menanyakan apakah model kita dapat diuji. Kami pikir itu benar. Setiap proposisi yang kami teliti dalam makalah ini mewakili sebuah tes yang mungkin gagal model kami. Misalnya, jika estimasi offset pensiun sebagian besar mendekati -1.0 dan bukan mendekati nol, kami akan menganggapnya sebagai bukti bahwa masalah pengendalian diri secara empiris tidak penting. Demikian pula, efek bonus pada tabungan bisa saja diabaikan, yang menyiratkan bahwa akuntansi mental hanya memiliki sedikit tambahan.
Tes lain juga dimungkinkan. Teori kami menyarankan proposisi tambahan berikut ...
The behavioral life-cycle hypothesis
Shefrin dan Thaler (1988)
Abstract
Self-control, mental accounting, and framing are incorporated in a behavioral enrichment of the life-cycle theory of saving called the behevioral life-cycle (BLC) hypothesis. The key assumption of the BLC theory is that households treat components of their wealth as nonfungible, even in the absence of credit rationing. Specifically, wealth is assumed to be divided into three mental accounts: current income, current assets, and future income. The temptation to spend is assumed to be greatest for current income and least for future income. Considerable empirical support for the BLC theory is presented, primarily drawn from published econometric studies.
Introduction
Modigliani and Brumberg's life-cycle theory of saving (1954) and Friedman's similar permanent income hypothesis (1957) are classic examples of economic theorizing. The life-cycle (LC) model makes some simplifying assumptions in order to characterize a well-defined optimization problem which is then solved. The solution to that optimization problem provides the core of the theory.
Attempts to test the life-cycle hypothesis have met with mixed success. As summarized by Courant et al. (1986, 279-80), "But for all its elegance and rationality, the life-cycle model has not tested out very well... Nor have efforts to test the life-cycle model with cross-sectional microdata worked out very successfully." Various alterations to the theory have been proposed to help it accomodate the data: add a bequest motive, hypothesize capital market imperfections, assume that the utility function for consumption changes over time, or specify a particular form of expectations regarding future income. These modifications often appear to be ad hoc, since different assumptions are necessary to explain each anomalous empirical result. This paper suggests that the data can be explained in a parsimonious manner by making modifications to the life-cycle theory that are quite different in spirit from those cited above, namely modifications aimed at making the theory more behaviorally realistic. We call this enriched model the Behavioral Life Cycle (BLC) hypothesis.
...
Conclusion
The LC model is clearly in the mainstream tradition of microeconomic theory. It is typical of the general approach in microeconomics, which is to use a normative-based maximizing model for descriptive purposes. The recent papers by Hall and Mishkin (1982) and Courant et al. (1986) are really advances in the LC tradition.
Our model is quite different in spirit. First of all, our agents have very human limitations, and they use simple rule of thumb that are, by nature, second-best. While the LC model is a special case of our model (when either a first-best rule exists or there is no self-control problem), our model was developed specifically to describe actual behavior, not to characterize rational behavior. It differs from a standard approach in three important ways.
(1) It is consistent with behavior that cannot be reconciled with a single utility function.
(2) It permits "irrelevant" factors (i.e. those other than age and wealth) to affect consumption. Even the form of payment can matter.
(3) Actual choices can be strictly within the budget set (as a Christmas club).
The relationship between the self-control model and the LC model is similar to the relationship between Daniel Kahneman and Arnos Tversky (1979) prospect theory and expected utility theory. Expected utility theory is a well-established standard for rational choice under uncertainty. Its failure to describe individual behavior has led to the development of other models (such as prospect theory) that appear to do a better job at the tasks od description and prediction. The superiority of prospect theory as a predictive model, of course, in no way weakens expected utility theory's value as a prescriptive norm. Similarly, since we view the LC model as capturing the preferences of our planner, we do not wish to question its value to prescriptive economic theory. The LC model has also served an enormously useful role in providing the theory against which empirical evidence can be judged. For example, the one-to-one pension offset was a result derived from the LC model (without bequests), and the numerous studies we cite were no doubt stimulated by the opportunity to test this prediction. Saving adequacy even more directly requires a life-cycle criterion of appropriate saving with which actual saving can be compared.
At times we have argued that the use of ad hoc assumptions, added to the theory after anomalous empirical evidence has been brought forward, renders the LC model unstable. It is reasonable to ask whether our model is testable. We think that it is. Every one of the propositions we examined in this paper represents a test our model might have failed. For example, if the estimated pension offsets were mostly close to -1.0 instead of mostly close to zero, we would have taken that as evidence that self-control problems are empirically unimportant. Similarly, the effects of bonuses on saving could have been negligible, implying that mental accounting has little to add.
Other tests are also possible. Our theory suggests the following additional propositions...
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