Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Maqashid Sharia

Iman Al-Shatibi's Theory of Higher Objectives and Intents of Islamic Law

Written by Dr. Ahmad Al-Raysuni translated by Nancy Roberts

1433 AH / 2011 CE
The International Institute of Islamic Thought
London, UK & Washington, USA

p.136
Dimensions of the Theory

Al-Shatibi's theory of objectives is not found exclusively in the section of al-Muwafaqat devoted to this theme, namely, 'The Book of Higher Objectives' of which I have just presented a synopsis. Rather, it finds its way into the majority of al-Shatibi's writings. This being the case, 'The Book of Higher Objectives' is not sufficient in and of itself for a complete elucidation of the theory of objectives, its various dimensions, and its effects.
In all that al-Shatibi's writes, one finds that 'the objectives' are his companion, present in his words, exercising their sway over his views and rendering them more profound and discerning, while his views, in turn, render his theory clearer and more comprehensible. In fact, anyone who studies al-Shatibi will conclude that he wrote about nothing but maqaqshid al-shari'ah and their outcomes.

This section still engaged in the presentation of the theory, and in what follows I will deal in some detail with the imprints left by 'objectives' in three particular realms, namely: (1) the five essentials (elsewhere than in "The Book of Higher Objectives', (2) questions relating to actions classified as mubah, or permissible (under the rubric of al-ahkam al-taklifiyyah, that is, rulings which define legal obligations), and (3) causes and outcomes (under the rubric of al-ahkam al-wad'iyyah), or rulings which specify causes, conditions, and or constraints on such obligations).

p.137
1. The Five 'Essentials'

From his initial introductions to al-Muwafaqat, al-Shatibi begins raising issues relating to the objectives of Islamic Law and relying on his analysis of such issues for support and clarification of his views as they relate to the fundamentals of jurisprudence. In the first introduction, which he devotes to the claim that the fundamentals of Islamic jurisprudence are founded on the universals of the Law, which can be nothing other than definitive. He states, "What I mean by 'universals' here are: the essentials, exigencies and embellishments.

The definitive nature of these universals is beyond dispute. As al-Shatibi puts it, "The Muslim community - and, indeed, all religions - are in agreement that the Law was established to preserve the five essentials, namely, religion, human life, progeny, material wealth, and the human faculty of reason. Moreover, knowledge of these universals is also considered essential by the Muslim community."

From the introductions we move to 'The Book of Evidence' (Part 3 according to the book's division in modern printings), where al-Shatibi lays the general foundation for examining legal evidence. In Question 8, for example, he states "If, among the laws established in Madinah, you find a universal principle, then think carefully on it and you will find that in relation to that which is still more general, it is a specific, or a complement to a universal principle. Evidence of this may be seen in the fact that the universals which the Shari'ah has commanded us to preserve are five, namely: religion, human life, the faculty of human reason, progeny, and material wealth."

What al-Shatibi means by this statement is that even if what are considered to be universal principles of general rules are found among the various forms of legislation which were instituted in (p.138) Madinah, they are, in reality, no more than branches of the more general and more important universals which, given their significance, were revealed in Makkah. Hence, the higher objectives of the Law and its principle foundations were secured in the Makkan Qur'an side by side with the fundamentals and principles of Islamic doctrine. Al-Shatibi then goes on to trace the five universals (or essentials) to their supporting evidence in the Makkan Qur'an.

As for the preservation of (the Islamic) religion and the correction and consolidation of faith in the Makkan Qur'an, it is a matter so familiar and clear to many that it requires no evidence or examples to be cited in its support. In fact, there has come to be a widespread, albeit mistaken, belief that this is all that the Makkan Qur'an consisted of. However, Imam al-Shatibi corrects this notion by presenting what the Makkan Qur'an contained by way of legal principles and universals.

In connection with the preservation of human life, for example, we read, "...and do not take any human being's life - (the life) which God has declared to be sacred." (Qur'an, 81: 8-9).

Preservation of human life includes the preservation of the faculty of reason, while the complement to the preservation of the faculty of reason may be seen in the Madinan prohibition of intoxicants and the establishment of a penalty for its violation. Hence, the

2016-2019 research report

Methodology

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=REWv4dYgODk

Observational Research, types:
1. Unstructured: the observation is broad and ill-defined, "look out for things that seem interesting, important, different". Lots of detail but hard to record all data.
2. Disguised / covert: those being observed are not aware of observation occuring
3. Natural: observation occurs in a natural, real-world setting
4. Human: a human observer is directly responsible for observing and coding the observations

Observation is a suitable data collection method, when your research is concerned with "what people do".
Participant observation emphasis is on discovering the meanings that people attach to their actions. Under participant observation, the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and activities of members and thus becomes a member of their group, organization or community. This enables the researcher to share their experiences by not merely observing but also feeling it.

Complete participant role sees you as the researcher attempting to become a member of the group in which you are performing research. You do not reveal your true purpose to the group members.





ILMU MANFAAT DAN ILMU YANG MENIPU

Oleh: Kholili Hasib

SUATU saat, seorang murid senior Imam al-Ghazali berkirim surat berkeluh-kesah atas keadaan dirinya. Sang murid itu telah bertahun-tahun belajar kepada sang Hujjatul Islam. Hingga berhasil menguasai beberapa disiplin ilmu sampai pada tingkat detil dan rumit. Akan tetapi, dengan modal ilmu-ilmu itu, ia merasa ada yang kurang. Sebab, ia kebingungan mana yang bermanfaat untuk masa depannya.
“Telah aku baca berbagai macam dan jenis disiplin ilmu. Aku habiskan rentang usiaku hanya untuk mempelajari dan menguasainya. Sekarang, aku harus memilah dan memilih jenis disiplin ilmu apa yang bermanfaat untukku di masa depan serta mampu menjadi teman yang menghiburku di dalam sempit nan gelap di liang kubur, mana juga yang tidak bermanfaat hingga aku langsung menyisihkannya”, demikian kata sang murid dalam hatinya (Imam al-Ghazali, Ayyuhal Walad,).

Renungan murid imam al-Ghazali tersebut patut kita cerna baik-baik. Mungkin saja kita sedang dalam keadaan menggeluti sesuatu yang belum memberi manfaat untuk masa depan hidup kita. Karena, kita berada dalam milliupendidikan yang tidak lagi menjadikan ilmufardhu ain dan fardhu kifayah sebagai frame pendidikan Islam. Di lain pihak masih banyak lembaga yang masih mencari-cari model pendidikan yang mampu melahirkan generasi Muslim beradab.

Maka dapat kita ditemui, para orang tua sangat menekankan anak-anaknya untuk kursus bahasa Mandarin, kursus menari, musik, bimbingan belajar matematika dan lain-lain. Bahkan beban itu terlampau melewati batas normal kemampuan anak. Dengan biaya mahal sekalipun. Tapi lalai, bahwa anaknya belum bisa membaca surat al-Fatihah, belum hafal bacaan shalat dan tata caranya, dan buta terhadap maksud rukun iman dan Islam.

Begitulah, kejahilan tentang ilmu fardhu ‘ain dan fardhu kifayah menyebabkan seseorang itu tertipu (maghrur). Apalagi ada perasaan ‘ujub terhadap pencapaian ilmu yang telah diraihnya. Bisa jadi, seseorang tersibukkan dengan ilmu-ilmu yang tidak membawa manfaatnya.

Diterangkan oleh imam al-Ghazali, terdapat ilmu yang ahli bidang hukum dan khilafiyah fiqih dengan detail. Akan tetapi, ilmu tersebut tidak bermanfaat (untuk dirinya). Indikasinya, semakin detail ia pelajari, semakin ia bermaksiat kepada Allah.

Siang-malam dihabiskan untuk meneliti persoalan khilafiyah, namun abai terhadap penyakit yang menempel dalam hatinya sendiri. Berprasangka bahwa tidak ada ilmu lain yang menarik perhatiannya, kecuali ilmu perdebatan (munadzarah), membela diri, mengalahkan lawan-lawannya demi eksistensinya sebagai ilmuan yang ‘ahli’ fikih.

Akibatnya, tipe orang seperti itu mengabaikan sifat-sifat yang tercela seperti sombong, riya, hasud, cinta kehormatan, pangkat dan mencari popularitas. Semua ini adalah bentuk ketertipuan terhadap ilmunya. Kesibukannya hanya bertumpu pada amaliah lahir saja. Yang benar, mestinya ilmuan tersebut mempelajari ilmu lahir (fikih) sekaligus ilmu batin (tazkiyatun nafs).

Sebagaimana seseorang yang mempelajari fiqih harus memahami tauhid. Bahkan, kata Ibnu Athoillah al-Sakandari, memisahkan keduanya berarti terjun ke dalam ‘kekufuran’. Ia berpendapat: “Orang yang banyak berbicara tentang tauhid tetapi tidak peduli ilmu fiqih, sama saja dengan mencampakkan dirinya ke dalam samudra kekufuran”.
Seorang yang tertipu oleh ilmunya sendiri antara lain ada yang menekuni ilmu-ilmu syariat dan ilmu rasional (ilm ‘aqliyah). Dua ilmu ini baik dan bagus. Semestinya membawa manfaat. Namun di sisi yang lain, mereka membiarkan anggota tubuhnya berbuat maksiat. Ddisebabkan, ilmunya tidak tidak diamalkan dengan baik.

Seseorang tertipu dengan ilmunya itu, karena dalam dirinya terdapat perasaan bahwa dengan eksisnya ilmu syariat dalam dirinya, ia merasa sudah aman dari murka Allah Swt. Prasangka yang berlebihan bahwa ilmu yang ia pelajari langsung menaikkan derajatnya di sisi AllahSubhanahu Wata’ala.

Mereka inilah yang tertipu dengan ilmu yang dimiliki. Padahal, ilmu yang bermanfaat adalah apabila diamalkan dan membawa kepada rasa khasyyah (takut) kepada Allah Subhanahu Wata’ala.

Tanda ilmu yang bermanfaat itu diungkapkan oleh Ibnu Athoillah al-Sakandari, yaitu jika ilmu itu kita pelajari mengundang khasyyah (rasa takut) kepada Allah Subhanahu Wata’ala (Ibnu Athoillah al-Sakandari, Al-Hikam,hal.278). Bila kita pelajari suatu ilmu, tetapi tidak semakin bertakwa, maka ada dua sebab; bisa jadi ada subjek ilmu yang belum ditekuni dan bisa pulamindset belajarnya keliru yaitu ilmunya dituju untuk tujuan-tujuan tidak baik.

Ternyata, disiplin ilmu-ilmu itu tidak mengandung manfaat kecuali bila membantu menuju kepada takwa. Jadi, kemuliaan ilmu digantungkan oleh manfaat atau tidaknya. Sudah pasti dengan memenuhi syarat mempelajari; yaitu niat karena Allah Subhanahu Wata’ala. Sementara, ilmu yang tidak bermanfaat akan menjadi ‘senjata’ menenggelamkan seseorang dalam kekeliruan.

Kata Ibnu Athoillah, ‘sebaik-baik ilmu adalah yang mengundang rasa khasyyah. Maka, setiap ilmu yang tidak disertai rasa takwa dipastikan tidak akan memberikan kebaikan. Dan pemiliknya tidak boleh digelari dengan alim.Maksud dari ungkapan Ibnu Athoillah tersebut adalah ilmu-ilmu yang dapat menghantar untuk mengenal Allah. Inilah ilmu terbaik.

Ilmu yang manfaat atau yang tidak, diukur dengan manfaatnya masa depan akhirat. Sufyan al-Tsauri mengatakan: “Sesungguhnya ilmu itu dipelajari semata untuk taqwa kepada Allah. Maka, jika ada ilmu yang di dalamnya tidak bisa membawa taqwa, maka buanglah” (Muhammad bin Ibrahim al-Randy,Ghaitsul Mawahib al-‘Aliyyah fi Syarh al-Hikam al-‘Athoiyyah, hal. 278).

Karena itu, banyaknya subjek ilmu yang dikuasai seseorang menjadikan seseorang menjadi takabbur sehingga merusak hati dan pikirannya. Bahayanya adalah, bila seseorang tidak merasa sama sekali dalam hatinya bahwa ia tertipu dengan ilmunya sendiri. Lebih bahaya lagi banyaknya subjek ilmu yang dipelajari bukan dari guru.

Seringkali ilmu menjadi sesuatu yang buruk dan merusak karena pemilik ilmu itu jauh dari Allah. Ia menempatkan orientasi ilmunya pada popularitas, dan selalu disibukkan dengan dunia. Ilmu yang demikian, hanya akan merusak masa depan seseorang.

Maka, riwayat Abu Hurairah ini harus menjadi pengingat para ilmuan; “Barangsiapa menuntut ilmu yang seharusnya ditujukan untuk ridha Allah, tetapi ia pelajari untuk dunia, di hari kiamat ia tak mencium bau Surga.” (HR. Ahmad dan Abu Daud).*

Wednesday, November 6, 2019

Konsep Tauhid dan Kajian Perspektif Worldview Islam

Konsep Tauhid dan Kajian Perspektif Worldview Islam

04/11/2019
Oleh: Kholili Hasib

Pembicaraan tentang konsep tauhid merupakan karakteristik penting dari konsep Tuhan dalam Islamic Worldview. Pembahaman yang benar tentang Tuhan, dibahas dalam ilmu tauhid. Dalam tradisi Islam, konsep tauhid bukan hanya dibicarakan pada tingkat Kalam, tapi juga pada level Tasawuf. Kajiannya berada pada tingkat teologis, bukan antropologis. Metafisika, bukan fisika. Dalam konteks kajian Islamic Worldview, pengkajian ini akan memperlihatkan perbedaan mendasar sekaligus jawabatan atas pemahaman kaum pluralisme agama atau pemahaman masyarakat sekuler pada umumnya.

Dengan konsep Tauhid inilah manusia mengenal Tuhannya dengan benar. Pengenalan dan pengakuan manusia kapada Tuhan dengan benar itulah bisa mempengaruhi perilaku dan pikiran seorang manusia.

Pada aspek Kalam, kajian tauhid dibahas dengan nama konsep wahdaniyyah (pengesaan kepada Allah Swt). Syaikh Ibrahim al-Laqqani menjelaskan yang dimaksud ke-Esa-an Allah itu adalah Esa dalam Dzat-Nya, Sifat-Nya dan Af’al-Nya (Tuhfatul Murid, hal. 79).

Esa dalam Dzat-Nya maksudnya Allah tidak tersusun dari beberapa bagian (juzu’). Tidak ada satu dzat pun yang menyerupai Dzat Allah. Adapun maksud Allah Esa dalam Sifat-Nya adalah tidak ada bagi Allah itu dua sifat yang bersesuaian pada nama dan makna seperti dua qudrat, dua ilm, atau dua iradah. Tidak ada seorangpun yang memiliki sifat yang menyerupai salah satu dari sifat-sifat Allah. Adapun makna Allah Esa dalam Af’al-Nya adalah Allah melaksanakan af’alnya tanpa ada bantuan dari seorang pun.

Dalam Islam, Allah Swt merupakan realitas tertinggi menjadi acuan setiap aktifitas kaum Muslim. Seorang Muslim dinilai kurang sempurna imannya jika dalam satu aspek dia menjadikan Allah Swt sebagai acuan, tapi dalam aspek lain menepikan Allah Swt. Apapun aktivitas, profesi dan kegiatan manusia merupakan penghambaan (ibadah) kepada Allah Swt.

Seseorang yang telah sampai pada ihsan juga selalu memelihara kehadirannya di mana saja berada bersama Allah Swt. Memelihara kehadiran ini disebut syuhud. Dalam Islam ada ibadah yang disebut ghairu mahdhoh. Aktifitas apa saja — yang tidak bertentangan dengan syariat — bisa menjadi ibadah. Maka, setiap Muslim yang melakukan aktifitasnya dengan memelihara kebersamaan bersama Allah Swt disebut ihsan. Syekh Abdul Wahid bin Zaid menjelaskan tentang ihsan: Jika Tuhanku mengawasiku, maka aku tidak mempedulikan selain-Nya. Demikian yang dimaksud kajian tauhid pada level tasawuf.

Seorang saintis yang ihsan misalnya, dia melakukan kerja-kerja sains-nya, atau aktifitas keilmuannya dengan selalu merasa bersama Allah Swt. Ketika ia merasa bersama Allah Swt itulah dia menggunakan pandangan-pandangan keilmuannya terkait dengan-Nya. Dia melihat peristiwa alam bukan sekedar realitas yang terjadi secara ‘otomatis’. Tapi dia meyakini bahwa dalam peristiwa alam itu ada kuasa Allah Swt. Bahwa alam itu merupakan tanda (alamah) akan kewujudan agung Allah Swt.

Dalam mengamalkan akhlak dan adab, seorang Muslim juga harus menjadikan Allah Swt sebagai acuan, sebagai pengamalan ihsan. Termasuk dalam etika pertemanan (al-suhbah). Imam al-Ghazali menyebutnya — pertemanan yang baik — sebagai salah satu rukun agama. Dikatakannya, bahwa agama (al-din) itu sesungguhnya seperti safar (berpergian) menuju Allah Subhanahu wa Ta’ala. Dan salah satu pilar ber-safar adalah berbaik hati ketika berteman (Imam al-Ghazali, al-Arba’in fi Ushul al-Din,84).

Jadi, mengamalkan ihsan berarti menjadikan tauhid sebagai tonggak tertinggi dalam melakukan iktifitas. Jika sesorang dalam hati memiliki keyakinan bahwa Allah Swt mengawasi setiap perbuatan kita dan tiap aktivitas kita ada tanggung jawabnya kepada Allah Swt, maka kita tidak akan meninggalkan Allah Swt dalam berbagai aspek. Di mana pun dan kapanpun pikiran kita harus tetap pikiran yang Islam. Di kampus, kantor, masjid, pasar dan lain-lain Islam dan nilai ketuhanan menjadi dasar penggerak aktivitas.

Maka, dalam pandangan Islam, realitas tertinggi adalah Tuhan, dan menjadi asas paling dasar dalam aktivitas berpikir. Dalam menjalani kehidupan beragama ini, seorang Muslim memiliki pandangan-pandangan terhadap konsep kehidupan, manusia, akhlak, ilmu alam dan lain sebagainya. Jika konsep-konsep yang berpusat dengan konsep Allah ini berfungsi menjadi alat utama memandang sesuatu, maka seorang Muslim memandang realitas ini dalam kesatuan konsep yang berpusat kepada tauhid.

Maka, apapun keahlian ilmu seorang Muslim; fisikawan, ahli kedokteran, insinyur, ahli ekonomi, teolog, ahli falsafah, faqih, dan lain-lain, jika menggunakan tauhid sebagai standarnya, maka ilmu yang terpancar dari akal fikirnya menjadi kekhasan tersendiri sebagai seorang ilmuan Muslim yang hakiki.

Selain itu, bertauhid berkait dengan adab kemanusiaan, begitu pula sebaliknya. Artinya, tauhid Islam tidak berarti menafikan nilai-nilai yang disebut ‘humanis’. Justru tauhid itu menurut Isma’il Raji al-Faruqi mengimplikasikan pada sikap beradab terhadap berbagai aspek, seperti sosial, ekonomi, seni, sains dan lain-lain. Seorang muslim religius adalah pribadi yang peduli kemanusiaan, sains dan ilmu-ilmu lainnya. Sebaliknya, seorang muslim yang ‘humanis’ mestinya bertauhid bukan secular (Isma’il Raji al-Faruqi,terj,Tauhid,terj. hal. 62). Etika tidak dapat dipisahkan dari agama dan sepenuhnya dibangun di atasnya. Rasulullah SAW bersabda:”Mu’min yang paling sempurna imannya adalah yang paling baik akhlaknya”. (HR. Abu Dawud dan Ahmad).

Ini berarti mu’min yang sempurna itu yang ‘humanis’. Abu Bakar Jabir al-Jazairi mengatakan tujuan tauhid itu setelah mengesakan Allah dan tunduk pada syari’at, adalah menjaga kelestarian kesucian dan kebaikan manusia, menjaga kemulyaan dan kedudukan manusia di antara umat-umat lain. Menurut al-Faruqi, Islam tidak mengenal predikat ‘religius-sekular’ karena itu tidak mungkin. Selain itu, orang ber-tauhid harus tunduk pada syari’at-Nya, bukan mengikuti apa kata diri manusia. Al-Jazairi mengatakan tauhid mewajibkan beribadah hanya kapada-Nya, sekaligus meyakini bahwa semua makhluk diurus oleh Allah.

Menurut Prof. Syed M Naquib al-Attas orang baik itu orang yang menyadari sepenuhnya tanggung jawab terhadap dirinya kepada Tuhan, sekaligus memahami dan menunaikan keadilan terhadap diri, orang lain dan alam. Konsep kebaikan tidak lepas dari keilahian. Adil terhadap diri, manusia dan alam itu berpondasi kepada Tuhan, bukan kepada rasio belaka. Artinya, orang baik itu adalah ber-tauhid sekaligus toleran (Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud,Filsafat dan Praktik Pendidikan Islam Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas,terj. hal. 174). Muslim bertauhid harus muslim manusiawi begitu pula sebaliknya. Maka, humanis dalam Islam didasari oleh ketuhanan dan sebaliknya muslim bertwhīd yang baik mestinya menjadi pribadi yang dikatakan ‘humanis’. Berbeda dengan worldview Barat, bahwa menjadi humanis tidak perlu menjadi religius, seorang ateispun dapat menjadi humanis. Dalam konsep Islam, pribadi seperti ini bukan orang baik.

Bagi Prof. al-Attas, kebebasan sesungguhnya adalah bertindak sesuai dengan yang dituntut oleh hakikat sebenarnya dari dirinya. Yaitu kembali kembali kepada kecenderungan alami, sebagai hamba yang khudu’ (patuh). Khudu’ ini adalah konsekuensi tauhid. Menurut Imam al-Thahawi, tujuan tawhīd adalah menjalankan keimanan dengan hukum-hukum syari’at (Abdul Ghaniy al-Ganimiy al-Maidaniy al-Hanafi al-Dimasyqi,Syarh al-‘Aqidah al-Tahāwiyah, hal. 47).

Dalam pandangan Islam, kebebasan manusia itu kebebasan diri ruhani, yaitu pengembalian diri kepada hakikat yang sebenarnya yang pernah mengikat janji kepada Allah SWT. Kebebasan adalah bentuk penghambaan yang murni kepada Allah SWT secara sempurna. (Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas,Risalah Untuk Kaum Muslimin, hal. 82, dan Tinjauan Ringkas Peri Ilmu dan Pandangan Alam, hal.63-64).

Dengan demikian, konsep tawhīd dalam Islam itu adalah manusiawi, tidak ’membunuh’ manusia dalam keterpenjaraan, tidak pula ’mematikan’ Tuhan. Konsep tawhid mengajarkan doktrin-doktrin memperlakukan secara baik kepada manusia, seperti disebut di atas. Menjadi manusia humanis tidak perlu dengan mereduksi konsep ketuhanan. Adapun kepercayaan bahwa Tuhan telah ‘mati’, mereduksi sifat ketuhanan. Secara otomatis konsep sifat Hayah, Qudrah dan Iradah Allah SWT dikosongkan. Padahal para ulama’ sepakat bahwa segala kejadian di alam tidak lepas dari sifat tersebut. Fakhruddin al-Razi menegaskan, ilmu Allah itu menyangkut Kulliyyat dan Juz’iyyat, tidak hanya Kulliyyat (Fakhruddin al-Razi, Lubabul Isyarat wa Tanbihit Tahqiq Dr. Ahmad Hijazi al-Saqa, hal. 6). Syekh Nawawī al-Bantanī menafsirkan kekuasaan-Nya yang juz’iyyāt itu maksudnya, bahwa Allah SWT merespon doa dan permintaan hamba-Nya setiap harinya dan setiap saatnya Dia memberi ampunan, memberi jalan kemudaan setiap kesulitan manusia (Muhammad bin ‘Umar Nawawi al-Jawi,Marah Labid Likasyfi Ma’na al-Qur’ān al-Majīd Jilid II,hal. 477).

Pemahaman seperti ini menafikan pemikiran kesatuan agama-agama atau kesatuan tuhan-tuhan yang dipromosikan dengan paham bernama pluralism. Imam Fakhruddin al-Razi dalam tafsirnya Mafatih al-Ghaib mengatakan bahwa golongan Yahudi dan Nasrani telah gagal memenuhi tiga tuntutan tauhid yang disebutkan dalam al-Qur’an Surat Ali Imran ayat 64. Pertama, tidak beribadah kecuali hanya kepada Allah dan tidak menuhankan Nabi Isa. Kedua, tidak menyekutukan Allah dan ketiga, tidak mentaati para rahib dan pendeta mereka dalam penghalalan dan pengharaman tanpa disyariatkan oleh Allah Swt. Jadi, tauhid jelas berlawanan dengan paham pluralisme. Tauhid adalah inti risalah semua Nabi dan Rasul.

Karena itu, paradigma paham pluralisme adalah rancu. Bagaimana mungkin Islam yang mempercayai Allah SWT sebagai satu-satunya Tuhan disejajarkan keimanannya dengan Kristen yang meyakini tiga Tuhan. Dan di saat yang sama Islam mengkafirkan orang yang meyakini Tuhan itu tiga (QS al-Maidah 72 dan 73). Apakah dapat disamakan Kristen yang menyembah Yesus sebagai Tuhan dengan Islam yang mengkafirkan orang yang menuhankan Yesus?

http://inpasonline.com/konsep-tauhid-dan-kajian-perspektif-worldview-islam/

Monday, November 4, 2019

Paradigma

Multiparadigma itu terdiri:
1. Positivist paradigm
2. Interpretivist paradigm
3. Critical paradigm
4. Postmodernist paradigm
5. Religionist paradigm
6. Spiritualist paradigm
7. Divine paradigm

Berurutan dr yg paling jauh (no. 1)dr Tuhan sampai yg paling dekat dengan Tuhan (no. 7)

Yg mendikhotomikan positivist dg multiparadigma berarti ybs gk paham. Positivist bagian dr multiparadigma

Untuk konstruksi akuntansi syariah minimal kita pake posmodernis (sy sebut jg paradigma muallaf, krn paradigma ini membuka diri u menerima agama)

Tp lebih bagus lg klo pake paradigma religionis yg brngkt dr alquran dan hadis/sunnah u konstruksi akuntansi syariah

Lebih bagus lg kalo kita pake paradigma spiritualis yg menggunakan ruh suci kita (kecerdasan spiritual) u mendapatkan inspirasi dr Allah untuk membangun akuntansi syariah

Puncaknya adalah paradigma ilahi, di sini [kecerdasan] manusia gk ada, yg ada hanya [kecerdasan] Allah saja. Ini puncak tauhid

Utk konstruksi ilmu sebaiknya kita pake satu paradigma saja [bukan semua paradigma dipake sekaligus]

Kalo mo milih salah satu paradigma, mk pilihlah yg lebih dekat sm Allah

Wednesday, October 2, 2019

Warga Muhammadiyah: Membentengi Muhammadiyah dari Paham Salafi

Akhir-akhir ini muncul kegelisahan terkait paham “salafi” yang semakin diminati di kalangan warga Muhammadiyah. Penulis sengaja memberi tanda kutip mengingat pada kenyataannya paham salafi tidak satu corak. Namun secara umum, salafi adalah sebuah paham yang berkeyakinan bahwa beragama yang benar adalah yang mengikuti cara beragama 3 generasi awal Islam, yakni sahabat, tabiin dan tabiut tabiin.

Dalam tulisan berjudul Menyikapi Tren Salafisme di Muhammadiyah yang dimuat pwmu.co, Dr. Biyanto Wakil Sekretaris PWM Jawa Timur menyampaikan kegelisahan Dr. Anwar Abbas Ketua PP. Muhammadiyah terkait gejala menguatnya faham salafisme di amal usaha Muhammadiyah. Hal ini terlihat dari pakaian yang berbeda dari umumnya. Yakni bercadar untuk perempuan dan bercelana cingkrang bagi laki-laki.

Menurut beliau, menghadapi gejala tersebut, sebaiknya pimpinan AUM menegaskan aturan berbusana di AUM yang sesuai dengan paham agama Muhammadiyah. Tidak perlu beradu dalil karena tidak akan ada habisnya. Yang terpenting adalah adanya ketegasan dari pimpinan AUM tersebut tentang kode etik berpakaian.

Kritik cukup keras datang dari Nurbani Yusuf Ketua PDM Kota Batu terkait tema yang sama. Dalam tulisannya di ibtimes.id yang berjudul Muhammadiyah Salafi, Persilangan Identitas Baru? Nurbani menyoroti ketidakberdayaan kader dan pimpinan Muhammadiyah dalam menghadapi gempuran ideologi salafi.

Menurutnya, Muhammadiyah terlalu sibuk dengan amal usaha namun lupa pada state of mind (manhaj) mengapa AUM didirikan. Hal ini membuat salafi mempunyai masa depan gemilang di Muhammadiyah. Gejalanya sudah mulai terlihat. Di mana, jamaah Muhammadiyah lebih taat fatwa dari ulama salafi dibanding dengan ulama majelis tarjih.

Infiltrasi Paham Salafi

Sebelum masuk ke tema utama yakni bagaimana cara menangkal faham salafi di persyarikatan, ada beberapa poin yang perlu kita fahami bersama. Dalam rumusan sifat-sifat Muhammadiyah poin 2 dijelaskan bahwa sifat Muhammadiyah adalah memperbanyak kawan dan mengamalkan ukhuwah Islamiyah. Dalam poin 8 disebutkan bahwa Muhammadiyah bisa bekerjasama dengan organisasi Islam manapun dalam rangka menyiarkan dan mengamalkan ajaran Islam.

Tulisan ini tidak bermaksud menyalahi dua poin sifat Muhammadiyah di atas dan merusak ukhuwah Islamiyah antara Muhammadiyah dengan Salafi.

Kita tetap menghargai Salafi sebagai sebuah paham agama. Namun persoalannya adalah saat salafisme melakukan infiltrasi dan mengambil alih Muhammadiyah dari dalam.

Misal, Pimpinan ranting Muhammadiyah mempunyai mesjid yang dibangun oleh jamaah Muhammadiyah. Karena marbotnya berpaham salafi, kajian dan amalan ibadahnya tidak ikut tarjih namun ikut paham Salafi.

Fenomena seperti di atas yang coba kita kritisi, karena justru merusak harmoni internal umat sendiri.

Ketua Umum PP. Muhammadiyah Dr. Haedar Nashir dalam buku Meneguhkan Ideologi Gerakan Muhammadiyah mengatakan: "Jika Muhammadiyah melakukan peneguhan terhadap ideologi gerakan bagi seluruh warga dan sistem organisasinya, maka bukan berarti sedang membangun ketertutupan dan berhadapan dengan pihak lain, lebih-lebih secara konfrontatif.

Namun, Muhammadiyah sedang menata dan mengurus rumah tangganya sendiri agar kokoh dan tidak diganggu siapapun yang membuat gerakannya lemah dan centang perenang. Muhammadiyah selalu menjunjung tinggi ukhuwah dan kerjasama dengan pihak manapun."

Mengapa Paham Salafi Dipermasalahkan?

Sekitar tahun 2005 sampai 2010, Muhammadiyah pernah mengalami konflik yang sama dengan harakah tarbiyah. Hal tersebut membuat PP Muhammadiyah mengeluarkan SK PP Muhammadiyah Nomor 149 tahun 2006 tentang konsolidasi organisasi. Pasca keluarnya SK tersebut anasir tarbiyah mulai menyingkir dari Muhammadiyah.

Hari ini penulis melihat hubungan Muhammadiyah dengan tarbiyah cukup baik seperti halnya dengan NU. Hidayat Nur Wahid diundang ke pengajian PP Muhammadiyah. Harmonisasi antara tarbiyah dan Muhammadiyah justru terjadi saat harakah tarbiyah saling menghormati dan tidak saling menginfiltrasi.

Selanjutnya saat ada yang mencoba mengkritik gejala salafisme di Muhammadiyah. Seringkali pihak yang merasa tersindir tidak menerima. Kemudian mereka mencoba melakukan serangan balik dengan argumen, mengapa salafi dipermasalahkan sementara orang-orang liberal di Muhammadiyah tidak dipersoalkan?

Argumen ini sekilas benar, namun mengandung kecacatan. Kenapa Salafi dipermasalahkan? Jawabannya karena yang mengambil alih mesjid, yang melawan fatwa tarjih (misalnya penolakan hisab wujudul hilal oleh M. Abduh Tuasikal) adalah Salafi.
*Kalau yang melakukan itu orang liberal kita pasti akan melawan mereka juga.

Lagi pula liberalisme ini kalaupun ada di Muhammadiyah namun tidak banyak bisa mempengaruhi akar rumput secara masif dibanding salafisme. Penulis melihat Majelis Tarjih dan Tajdid dalam metode dan fatwanya dapat menengahi dinamika salafisme dan liberalisme dalam Muhammadiyah.

Maka selama ikut fatwa MTT jangan khawatir jadi liberal. Pada kenyataannya justru Paham Salafi banyak yang mendelegitimasi fatwa MTT. Misalnya musik haram mutlak, isbal haram mutlak, cadar sunnah, hisab haram dll. Upaya delegitimasi ini anehnya banyak justru diamini oleh warga Muhammadiyah sendiri.

Langkah-langkah Membentengi Paham Salafi

Lantas apa yang bisa kita lakukan? Tentu hal ini tidak bisa diratapi saja tanpa ada aksi nyata. Penulis menawarkan tiga pendekatan yang bisa dilakukan:

Pendekatan Otoritas

Pendekatan ini sama seperti yang diuraikan oleh Dr. Biyanto sebelumnya, yakni pimpinan Muhammadiyah atau pimpinan AUM harus bersikap tegas terhadap salafi. Kalau masih mau berada di Muhammadiyah ikut aturan Muhammadiyah.
Kalau tidak, silahkan keluar. Pendekatan ini efektif jika pimpinan Muhammadiyah atau AUM tersebut sudah mempunyai infrastruktur dan sumber daya manusia yang mapan. Mengeliminasi seseorang tidak akan mengganggu sistem karena segera ada penggantinya.

Namun bagaimana jika misalnya di salah satu masjid Muhammadiyah yang bisa menjadi marbot full time hanya 2 orang dan mereka semua fahamnya salafi? Lantas mencari penggantinya susah?

Kasus seperti ini harus menjadi otokritik juga bagi kita. Jangan salahkan jika mesjid Muhammadiyah dikuasai Salafi, wong warga Muhammadiyah juga jarang salat di masjid. Begitu kira-kira argumen yang sering penulis dengar. Bagi penulis argumen ini adalah *otokritik yang bergizi yang harus ditindaklanjuti bersama.

Pendekatan Intelektual

Mudir Ma’had Darul Arqam Garut yang sekaligus juga guru penulis Ayi Mukhtar, Lc, M.E.Sy pernah mengatakan kepada penulis: “Zaman dulu, jika ada paham di luar Muhammadiyah berusaha masuk ke dalam persyarikatan, maka oleh kader Muhammadiyah diajak diskusi, dan justru kader Muhammadiyah yang berusaha membuatnya ikut Muhammadiyah. Sekarang seolah-olah kita hanya panik dengan ancaman ideologi lain, dan kurang percaya diri dengan ideologi Muhammadiyah sendiri.”

Mendengar pernyataan itu penulis tersadar, bahwa pertahanan terbaik adalah menyerang. Hari ini paradigma kita seolah bertahan dari gempuran ideologi Salafi, kita bertahan agar warga Muhammadiyah tidak terpengaruh paham lain.
Kenapa tidak kita ubah paradigma itu dengan *bagaimana caranya supaya jamaah salafi tertarik untuk menjadi Muhammadiyah?

Hal ini tentu bisa dilakukan jika memang kita mempunyai bekal yang cukup untuk berdiskusi mengkritik Salafi sekaligus meyakinkan kelebihan Muhammadiyah.

Contohnya salafi menurut penulis bukanlah pengikut Salaf sejati. Namun mengikuti Salaf berdasarkan pemahaman Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab, Abdullah bin Baz, Nashirudin Al Albani, dan Ibnu Utsaimin.

Kenyataannya dalam setiap tulisannya seringkali mengutip fatwa ulama-ulama di atas, tidak langsung fatwa sahabat atau tabiin.

Lagi pula jika kita lihat secara jujur, dialektika para sahabat yang merupakan generasi salaf sangatlah dinamis. Misalnya Bilal bin Rabah pernah berselisih dengan Umar bin Khattab tentang pembagian tanah ghanimah.

Bilal menganggap Umar telah menyalahi nash Alquran, sebaliknya Umar meyakini bahwa apa yang dilakukannya demi kemaslahatan.

Kisah ini menunjukan bahwa pada masa salaf sudah ada dua pemikiran yakni yang tekstual seperti Bilal dan kontekstual seperti Umar. Lantas kenapa kelompok salafi yang sekarang hanya mengakui pendekatan tekstual dan menyingkirkan pendekatan kontekstual?

Inilah yang membedakan ideologi salafi sekarang dengan salafi versi Muhammad Abduh. Dimana menurut Abduh kembali kepada Alquran dan sunnah berarti mendayagunakan akal dalam memahami Alquran dan sunnah untuk menjawab masalah kekinian. Tentu Muhammadiyah lebih mendekati salafisme Abduh dibanding dengan kaum salafi hari ini.

Konkretnya hari ini kader Muhammadiyah tidak boleh takut lagi berdiskusi dengan siapapun termasuk salafi.

Pendekatan Spiritual

Menurut penulis, keunggulan Salafi yang memang harus diakui adalah bisa memenuhi dahaga spiritual jamaahnya. Spiritualitas yang kental juga bisa kita temui dalam komunitas jamaah tablig atau tarekat. Namun menurut Salafi (begitu juga Muhammadiyah) dua entitas di atas adalah cenderung bid’ah.
Sementara salafi mengklaim yang diajarkannya adalah Islam murni. Ini yang menjadi nilai plus salafi dibanding dengan komunitas Islam lain.

Ada yang mengatakan bahwa Muhammadiyah kering spiritualitasnya karena lebih fokus kepada membangun amal usaha. Penulis menganggap hal ini adalah otokritik yang bermanfaat walau bukan tanpa catatan.

Bagaimana Teladan Kiai Dahlan?

Djarnawi Hadikusumo dalam Buku Matahari-Matahari Muhammadiyah menggambarkan sosok KH Ahmad Dahlan sebagai berikut: Dari gelembung di bawah kedua matanya dapat ditandai bahwa dia kurang tidur malam, asyik membaca atau berpikir serta berdzikir kepada Allah.

Dalam hal berpakaian sangat sederhana namun bersih. Bersarung palikat yang dililit tinggi dari atas mata kaki, mengenakan baju jas tutup berwarna putih, kepalanya berpilitkan serban yang pantas letaknya. Kesemuanya itu menggambarkan pribadinya sebagai manusia taqwa kepada Allah,serba teliti dan hati-hati dalam setiap perkataan dan langkahnya.

Uraian di atas menggambarkan betapa Kiai Dahlan adalah seorang yang saleh secara spiritual kalau tidak disebut sufi. Bahwa dibalik kecerdasan dan gerakan Kiai Dahlan, terdapat sikap religus dan spiritual yang tinggi. Jika ingin meneladani Kiai Dahlan, maka harus bisa menyeimbangkan antara gerakan sosial dengan ibadah mahdhah.

Spiritualitas Muhammadiyah bukanlah spiritualitas yang menjumudkan. Namun spiritualitas yang menggerakkan. Aktifitas ibadah mahdhah baik wajib maupun sunnah bagi Muhammadiyah bukan hanya untuk meraih kepuasan batin semata, namun sebagai sarana men-charge diri agar semakin semangat dalam beramal saleh.

Jika ada warga Muhammadiyah yang lebih memilih salafi karena mendapatkan asupan spiritual dari salafi, maka kader Muhammadiyah harus bisa menunjukan dan membuktikan bahwa Muhammadiyah juga memenuhi kebutuhan spiritual mereka. Kebutuhan asupan rohani mirip-mirip dengan kebutuhan jasmani. Ada orang yang makan sedikit sudah kenyang, ada juga yang makannya banyak.

Ada tipe orang yang kebutuhan spiritualnya lebih banyak dibanding yang lain. Muhammadiyah harus merangkul orang tipe ini dan memberikannya asupan yang dibutuhkan. Dengan tetap memberikan asupan intelektual dan melibatkannya dalam gerakan sosial. Tipe orang seperti inilah yang cocok dijadikan marbot di masjid-masjid Muhammadiyah.

Jangan sampai semua kader Muhammadiyah melakukan intisyar fil ardh namun tidak ada yang fokus di mesjid-mesjid Muhammadiyah. Muhammadiyah harus bisa mencetak kader-kader yang fokus dalam persoalan spiritual ini.

Sekretaris Jendral DPP IMM 2018-2020

Robby Karman https://www.facebook.com/groups/wargamuhammadiyahkalsel/permalink/434355980536632/?sfnsn=mo

Friday, April 12, 2019

Dimensions of Maqasid

Dimensions of Maqasid

Purposes or maqasid of the Islamic law themselves are classified in various ways, according to a number of dimensions. The following are some of these dimensions:
1. Levels of necessity, which is the traditional classification
2. Scope of the rulings aiming to achieve purposes.
3. Scope of people included in purposes.
4. Level of universality of the purposes.
Traditional classifications of maqasid divide them into three ‘levels of necessity’, which are 7 necessities (darurat), needs (hajiyat), and luxuries (tahsiniyyat). Necessities are further classified into what ‘preserves one’s faith, soul, wealth, mind, and offspring. Some jurists added ‘the preservation of honor’ to the above five widely popular necessities. These necessities were considered essential matters for human life itself. Thus, human life is in jeopardy if the minds of people are in jeopardy. That is why Islam is strict about banning alcohol and intoxicants. Human life is also in jeopardy if no measures are taken to protect people’s ‘souls’ by protecting their health and their environment. That is why the Prophet Muhammad (SAAS) prohibited all shapes and forms of ‘harm’ to another human being, other animals, or even plants. Human life is also in danger when in the case of financial (i.e. economic) crisis. That is why Islam bans monopoly, usury, and all shapes and forms of corruption and fraud. The high status given to the preservation of ‘offspring’ here also explains the many Islamic rulings that regulate and promote an excellent education and kind care for children. Finally, the ‘preservation of faith’ is a necessity for human life, albeit in the afterlife sense! Islam looks at life as a journey, part of which is on this earth and the rest of it is indeed in the afterlife! There is also a general agreement that the preservation of these necessities is the ‘objective behind any revealed law’, not just the Islamic law.
Purposes at the level of needs are less essential for human life. Examples of this are marriage, trade, and means of transportation. Islam encourages and regulates these needs. However, the lack of any of these needs is not a matter of life and death, especially on an individual basis. Human life, as a whole, is not in danger if some individuals choose not to marry or travel. However, if the lack of any of these ‘needs’ becomes widespread, then they move from the level of needs to the level of necessities. The fundamental rule in the Islamic law states: ‘A need that is widespread should be treated as a necessity’.
Purposes at the level of luxuries are ‘beautifying purposes’, such as using perfume, stylish clothing, and beautiful homes. These are things that Islam encourage, and considers to be further signs and proofs for God’s endless mercy and generosity with human beings, but also asserts how they should take a lower priority in one’s life.
The levels in the hierarchy are overlapping and interrelated, so noticed Imam al-Shatibi (who will be introduced shortly). In addition, each level should serve the level(s) below. For example, both marriage and trade (from the level of needs) serve, and are highly related with, the necessities of the preservation of offsprings and wealth. And so on. Therefore, the general lack of one item from a certain level moves it to the level above. For example, the decline of trade on a global level, i.e. during the time of global economic crises, moves ‘trade’ from a ‘need’ into a ‘life necessity’, and so on. That is why some jurists preferred to perceive necessities in terms of ‘overlapping circles’, rather than a strict hierarchy. See following chart.
Purposes of Islamic Law (levels of necessity)
- > Necessities - > preserving of faith, soul, wealth, mind, offspring, honor
- > Needs
- > Luxuries
Hierarchy of the purposes of the Islamic law (dimension of levels of necessity)
I find the levels of necessity reminiscent of the twentieth century’s Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human (rather than ‘divine’) objectives or ‘basic goals’, which he called, ‘hierarchy of needs’. Human needs, according to Maslow, range from basic physiological requirements and safety, to love and esteem, and, finally, ‘self-actualisation’. In 1943, Maslow suggested five levels for these needs. Then, in 1970, he revised his ideas and suggested a seven level hierarchy. The similarity between al-Shatibi’s and Maslow’s theory in terms of the levels of goals is interesting. Moreover, the second version of Maslow’s theory reveals another interesting similarity with Islamic ‘goal’ theories, which is the capacity to evolve with time.
Islamic theories of goals (maqasid) evolved over the centuries, especially in the twentieth century. Contemporary theorists criticised the above traditional classification of necessities for a number of reasons, including the following:
1. The scope of traditional maqasid is the entire Islamic law. However, they fall short to include specific purposes for single scripture / rulings or groups of scripture that cover certain topics or ‘chapters’ of Islamic law. For example, the traditional theory outlined above does not answer many of the detailed questions of ‘why’ mentioned before.
2. Traditional maqasid are concerned with individuals rather than families, societies, and humans, in general, i.e., the subject of the traditional Islamic criminal law is an individual’s soul, honor, or money, rather than the society’s life, the society’s honor and dignity, or the society’s wealth and economy, respectively.
3. The traditional maqasid classification did not include the most universal and basic values, such as justice and freedom, in its basic theory of levels of necessities.
4. Traditional maqasid were deduced from the Islamic legal heritage itself, rather than the original sources / scripture. In traditional accounts of maqasid, reference is always made to rulings of the Islamic law as decided by various Islamic schools of law, rather than referring to the original Islamic scripts (verses of the Qur’an, for example) for bases for maqasid.
To remedy the above shortcomings, modern scholarship introduced new conceptions and classifications of al-maqasid by giving consideration to new dimensions. Firstly, considering the scope of rulings they cover, contemporary classifications divide maqasid into three levels:
1. General maqasid: These maqasid are observed throughout the entire body of the Islamic law, such as the necessities and needs mentioned above and newly proposed maqasid, such as ‘justice’, ‘universality’, and ‘facilitation’.
2. Specific maqasid: These maqasid are observed throughout a certain ‘chapter’ of the Islamic law such as the welfare of children in family law, preventing criminals in criminal law, and preventing monopoly in financial transactions law.
3. Partial maqasid: These maqasid are the ‘intents’ behind specific scripture or rulings, such as the intent of discovering the truth in seeking a certain number of witnesses in certain court cases, the intent of alleviating difficulty in allowing an ill and fasting person to break his or her fasting, and the intent of feeding the poor in banning Muslims from storing meat during Eid / festival days.
In order to remedy the individuality drawback, the notion of maqasid has been expanded to include a wider scope of people – the community, nation, or humanity, in general. Ibn Ashur (introduced shortly), for example, gave maqasid that are concerned with the ‘nation’ (ummah) priority over maqasid that are concerned with individuals. Rashid Rida, for a second example, included ‘reform’ and ‘women rights’ in his theory of maqasid. Yusuf al-Qaradawi, for a third example included ‘human dignity and rights’ in his theory of maqasid.
The above expansions of the scope of maqasid allows them to respond to global issues and concerns, and to evolve from ‘wisdoms behind the rulings’ to practical plans for reform and renewal. They also put maqasid and its system of values in the centre of the debates over citizenship, integration, and civil rights for Muslim minorities in non-Muslim-majority societies.
Finally, contemporary scholarship has introduces new universal maqasid that were directly induced from the scripture, rather than from the body of fiqh literature in the schools of Islamic law. This approach, significantly, allowed maqasid to overcome the historicity of fiqh edicts and represent the scripture’s higher values and principles. Detailed rulings would, then, stem from these universal principles. The following are examples of these new universal maqasid deduced directly from the Islamic scripts:

Maqasid and Masalih

Maqasid and Masalih

The term maqsid (plural: maqasid) refers to a purpose, objective, principle, intent, goal, end telos (Greek), finalite (French), or Zweek (German). Maqasid of the Islamic law are the objectives / purposes / intents / ends / principles behind the Islamic rulings. For a number of Islamic legal theorists, it is an alternative expression to ‘people’s interests’ (masalih). For example, ‘Abd al-Malik al-Juwayni (d.478 AH / 1185 CE), one of the earliest contributors to al-maqasid theory as we know it today (as will be explained shortly) used al-maqasid and public interests (al-masalih al-‘ammah) interchangeably. Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 505 AH / 1111 CE) elaborated on a classification of maqasid, which he placed entirely under what he called ‘unrestricted interests’ (al-masalih al-mursalah). Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606 AH / 1209 CE) and al-Amidi (d. 631 AH / 1234 CE) followed al-Ghazali in his terminology. Najm al-Din al-Tufi (d. 716 AH / 1316 CE), defined maslahah as, ‘what fulfills the purpose of the legislator’. Al-Qarafi (d.1285 AH / 1868 CE) linked maslahah and maqasid by a fundamental (usuli) ‘rule’ that stated: ‘A purpose (maqsid) is not valid unless it leads to the fulfilment of some good (maslahah) or the avoidance of some mischief (mafsadah). Therefore, a maqsid, purpose, objective, principle, intent, goal, end, or principle in the Islamic law is there for the ‘interest of humanity’. This is the rational basis, if you wish, for the maqasid theory.

Maqasid Al-Shariah: A Beginner's Guide
By Jasser Auda
The International Institute of Islamic Thought. London-Washington. 2008

https://books.google.co.id/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_eanZPP5BfsC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=maqasid+al+shariah&ots=CE1ya0UC5V&sig=9ZQHt_6_AFMlUiEn-MXRsEzkvm4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=maqasid%20al%20shariah&f=false

Thursday, April 11, 2019

What is Maqasid?

What is Maqasid?

Levels of Why

Children often come up with deep philosophical questions, and one cannot tell whether they mean these questions or not! However, the beauty of a child’s question is that it is often not bound by pre-set ‘facts’ or ‘this is the way things are’ logic. I often start courses on Maqasid al-shariah with the story of a little girl who asked her father: ‘Dad, why do you stop the car at the traffic light?’ Her father replied, with an educative tone: ‘Because the light is red, and red means stop.’ The girl asked: ‘But why?’ The Dad replied also with a tone of education: ‘So the policeman does not give us a ticket.’ The girl went on: ‘But why would the policeman give us a ticket?’ The Dad answered: ‘Well, because crossing a red light is dangerous.’ The girl continued: ‘Why?’ Now the Dad thought of saying: ‘This is the way things are,’ but then decided to be a bit philosophical with his little beloved daughter. Thus, he answered: ‘Because we cannot hurt people. Would you like to be hurt yourself?’ The girl said: ’No!’ The Dad said: ‘And people also do not want to be hurt. The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “Love for people what you love for yourself.” But instead of stopping there, the girl asked: ‘Why do you love for people what you love for yourself?’ After a bit of thinking, the father said: ‘Because all people are equal, and if you would like to ask why, I would say that God is The Just, and out of His Justice, He made us all equal, with equal rights, and that is the way He made the world!’
The question of ‘why’ is equivalent to the question of ‘what is the maqasid?’ And the ‘levels of why’, as philosophers have put it, are the ‘levels of maqasid’, as Islamic jurists have put it. These levels of why and the exploration of maqasid will take us from the details of simple actions, and clear ‘signs’, such as stopping at a red traffic light, from the level of actions and signs to the level of laws and regulations, such as traffic laws, from the level of laws and regulations to the level of mutual benefits and ‘utility’, such as people’s consideration of others’ safety in exchange of their own safety, and finally, from the level of benefits and utility to the level of the overall principles and basic beliefs, such as justice, compassion, and the attributes of God.
Therefore, maqasid al-shariah is the branch of Islamic knowledge that answers all the challenging questions of ‘why’ on various levels, such as the following questions:
• Why is giving charity (zakah) one of Islam’s principle ‘pillars’?
• Why is it an Islamic obligation to be good to your neighbors?
• Why do Muslims greet people with salam (peace)?
• Why do Muslims have to pray several times every day?
• Why is fasting during the month of Ramadan one of Islam’s principle ‘pillars’?
• Why is drinking any amount of alcohol a major sin in Islam?
• Why is smoking weed, for example, as prohibited as drinking alcohol in Islam?
• Why is the death penalty a (maximum) punishment in the Islamic law for rape or genocide?
Maqasid al-shariah explain the ‘wisdoms behind rulings’, such as ‘enhancing social cohesion’, which is one of the wisdoms behind charity, behind good to one’s neighbors, and greeting people with peace.
Wisdoms behind rulings also include ‘developing consciousness of God,’ which is one of the rationales behind regular prayers, fasting, and supplications.
Maqasid are also good ends that the laws aim to achieve by blocking, or opening, certain means. Thus, the maqasid of ‘preserving the minds and souls of people’ explain the total and strict Islamic ban on alcohol and intoxicants, and the maqasid of ‘protecting people’s property and honor’ explain the Qur’an’s mentioning of a ‘death penalty’ as a (possible) punishment for rape or genocide (interpretations of verses 2:178 and 5:33, according to a number of schools of Islamic law).
Maqasid are also the group of divine intents and moral concepts upon which the Islamic law is based, such as justice, human dignity, free will, magnanimity, chastity, facilitation, and social cooperation. Thus, they represent the link between the Islamic law and today’s notions of human rights, development, and civility, and could answer some other type of questions, such as:
• What is the best methodology for re-reading and re-interpreting the Islamic scripture in light of today’s realities?
• What is the Islamic concept of ‘freedom’ and ‘justice’?
• What is the link between today’s notions of human rights and Islamic law?
• How can Islamic law contribute to ‘development’, morality, and ‘civility’?
Let us, next, study the terminology and theory of maqasid more formally.

Maqasid Al-Shariah: A Beginner's Guide
By Jasser Auda
The International Institute of Islamic Thought. London-Washington. 2008

https://books.google.co.id/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_eanZPP5BfsC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=maqasid+al+shariah&ots=CE1ya0UC5V&sig=9ZQHt_6_AFMlUiEn-MXRsEzkvm4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=maqasid%20al%20shariah&f=false

Thursday, February 28, 2019

Diskusi Praktik Bisnis berdasarkan Ekonomi Islam tentang Monopoli

Assalamualaikum

Bismillah

Pertanyaan saya adalah
1. Kalau menurut adab dan akhlak jual beli dalam islam khususnya dalam lingkup jual beli kecil (seperti wag abc) bukan pasar, apakah memang tdk boleh untuk berjualan barang yang sama?
2. Wag abc setau saya terbentuk untuk memudahkan anggota khususnya warga sekolah xyz untuk mudah mencari barang sekalian berwakaf.. apakah tdk boleh jika berjualan dgn barang yang sama namun lbh murah krn ibu2 pasti carinya segala sesuatu yang lebih murah
3. Apabila jawaban no 1 dan 2 adalah iya.. maka admin abc apakah tdk sebaiknya mendata barang2 yg sdh dijual oleh anggota abc sehingga tdk ada yg sama
4. Lalu bagaimanakah jika ada satu penjual yg dimana hampir semua barang dijual sehingga tdk membuka peluang anggota penjual baru yg masuk..

Trmksh sblmnya

Belum ditemukan literatur yang spesifik terkait hal ini, adapun literatur terdekat adalah mengenai hukum menjual barang di atas penjualan saudaranya dari https://www.dakwah.id/menjual-barang-di-atas-penjualan/

Yang tidak diperbolehkan adalah yang dimaksud dengan menjual barang di atas penjualan barang saudaranya adalah untuk barang yang sedang ditawar atau sedang dilakukan proses transaksi antara pembeli dengan penjual nomor 1, kemudian dipotong oleh penjual nomor 2.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini secara spesifik, ada beberapa konsep yang perlu dipahami terlebih dahulu, diantaranya adalah:
- Konsep mekanisme pasar bebas dalam ekonomi Islam
- Konsep 'urf dalam adab
- Perbedaan akhlak (adab) dengan syariat (hukum)
- Konsep rezeki dalam Islam
- Konsep berdagang dalam Islam

- Ekonomi Islam mendukung adanya mekanisme pasar bebas yang sehat, dalam arti harga tidak ditentukan tetapi dibentuk dari pertemuan penawaran dan permintaan barang. Akan tetapi pasar monopoli pun diizinkan tetap ada selama tidak menzalimi masyarakat.
- Kebiasaan yang berlaku di masyarakat atau dikenal dengan istilah 'urf dalam ekonomi Islam, memiliki persentase yang besar dalam menentukan hukum ekonomi, apalagi dalam menentukan adab.
- Adab merupakan bagian dari akhlak, sedangkan hukum boleh atau tidak merupakan bagian dari syariat. Keduanya adalah hal yang berbeda tetapi saling melengkapi. Syariat adalah sesuatu yang bersifat lebih kaku sedangkan akhlak merupakan norma dalam berinteraksi dengan sesama makhluk. Syariat mengutamakan keadilan sedangkan akhlak mengutamakan harmoni.
- Konsep rezeki dalam Islam adalah tidak ada yang dapat menghalangi sesuatu yang memang menjadi rezeki seseorang untuk sampai kepada pemilik rezeki tersebut jika memang rezeki tersebut adalah miliknya.
- Konsep berdagang dalam Islam yaitu dilakukan dengan niat baik untuk memenuhi kebutuhan diri dan masyarakat, sedangkan keuntungan dalam berdagang hanya sebagai alat atau fasilitas untuk mengantarkan rezeki berupa uang pada pemilik rezeki yang telah ditentukan oleh Allah. Konsep berdagang lainnya adalah adanya keridhaan dari semua pihak yang terlibat.

Dengan mempertimbangkan beberapa konsep tersebut, sebaiknya dilakukan musyawarah untuk mencapai mufakat dalam menentukan peraturan jual beli dalam wag sehingga mekanisme pasar yang sehat dapat tercapai. Walaupun menurut opini kami, sebaiknya tidak dilarang ada penjualan barang yang sama akan tetapi hal ini tetap merupakan kewenangan pengurus wag itu sendiri. Dan juga perlu dipertimbangkan bahwa setiap pilihan keputusan yang diambil akan memiliki konsekuensi yang berbeda terhadap arah grup wag itu sendiri.


Mekanisme Pasar Bebas dalam Ekonomi Islam
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316924511_MEMAHAMI_MEKANISME_PASAR_DALAM_EKONOMI_ISLAM
https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/195011-ID-mekanisme-pasar-dan-kebijakan-penetapan.pdf
https://www.kompasiana.com/ilhamsyahbudikurniawan/591908d423b0bd530ed602a1/mekanisme-pasar-dalam-pandangan-islam?page=all

Pelarangan Monopoli
https://www.republika.co.id/berita/dunia-islam/islam-nusantara/17/05/22/oqbx4h374-kapankah-praktik-monopoli-perdagangan-dibolehkan-dalam-islam

'Urf
https://almanhaj.or.id/2508-kaidah-ke-9-urf-dan-kebiasaan-dijadikan-pedoman-pada-setiap-hukum-dalam-syariat.html
http://www.rumahfiqih.com/x.php?id=1391071809

Akhlak dan Syariat
http://islamiccenter.upi.edu/aqidah-syariah-dan-akhlak/
https://www.kompasiana.com/canepen/54f93c40a333110a068b4903/pengertian-aqidah-syariah-dan%20akhlak-dalam-islam

Konsep Rezeki dalam Islam
https://islamicpersonalfinance-konsumerisme.blogspot.com/2018/05/resume-literatur-ekonomi-islam-10.html

Tuesday, February 5, 2019

Theory of Planned Behavior in Saving Behavior

International Journal of Financial Research Vol. 9 No. 2; 2018
Applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in Saving Behaviour of Pomak Households
Nikolaos Satsios & Spyros Hadjidakis
Online Published: March 16, 2018

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323803513_Applying_the_Theory_of_Planned_Behaviour_TPB_in_Saving_Behaviour_of_Pomak_Households


Measurement of constructs and their items:

1. Attitude towards saving:
- paying debts
- retirement
- education / love / family
- future uncertainties / emergency / safety

2. Subjective norms:
- I make financial contributions to my religious organization
- I spend time trying to grow in understanding of my faith
- Religion is especially important to me because it answers many questions about the meaning of life
- My religious beliefs lie behind my whole approach to life

3. Perceived behavioural control:
- There is really no way I can solve some of the problems I have
- Sometimes I feel that I'm being pushed around in life
- I have little control over the things that happen to me
- I often feel helpless in dealing with the problems of life
- There is little I can do to change many of the important things in my life.

4. Intention towards saving:
- I always try to pick saving schemes that yield high profits
- It is important always to save as much money left at the end of the month
- Saving should be encouraged in today's society

Thursday, January 31, 2019

Behavioral Life-Cycle Hypotheses

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5210679_The_Behavioral_Life-Cycle_Hypothesis

Therefore, in an effort to get beyond this sort of general critique, we suggest that the life-cycle model can be enriched by incorporating three important behavioral features that are usually missing in economic analyses. (1) Self-control: we recognize that self-control is costly, and that economic agents will use various devices such as pension plans and rules-of-thumb to deal with the difficulties of postponing a significant portion of their consumption until retirement. We also incorporate temptation into the analysis since some situations are less conductive to saving than others. (2) Mental accounting: most households act as if they used a system of mental accounts which violate the principle of fungibility. Specifically, some mental accounts, those which are considered "wealth", are less tempting than those which are considered "income". (3) Framing: an implication of the differential temptation of various mental accounts is that the saving rate can be affected by the way in which increments to wealth are "framed" or described. Our model predicts that income paid in the form of a lump sum bonus will be treated differently from regular income even if the bonus is completely anticipated. Building upon the research done on these topics by psychologists and other social scientists, we are able to make specific predictions about how actual household saving behavior will differ from the idealized LC model.
p.610

THE MODEL

Self-Control and Temptation: The Problem
In the Theory of Interest Irving Fisher bases his explanation of personal saving upon five characteristics: foresight, self-control, habits, expectation of life, and love for posterity. We concentrate here on the first three factors and the relationships among them. Foresight is important since retirement saving requires long-term planning. Self-control is necessary because immediate consumption is always an attractive alternative to retirement saving. Successfully dealing with self-control problems requires the cultivation of good habits. In presenting our model we begin with the concept of self-control.
p.610

How does self-control differ from ordinary choice? The distinguished psychologist William James I says that the key attribute of self-control choices is the "feeling of effort" that is present.

Effort of attention is thus the essential phenomenon of will. Every reader must know by his own experience that this is so, for every reader must have felt some fiery passion's grasp. What constitutes the difficulty for a man laboring under an unwise passion of acting as if the passion were wise? Certainly there is no physical difficulty. It is as easy physically to avoid a fight as to begin one, to pocket one's money as to squander it on one's cupidities, to walk away from as towards a coquette's door. The difficulty is mental: it is that of getting the idea of the wise action to stay before our mind at all.

Incorporating the effort that is present in self-control contexts involves three elements normally excluded from economic analyses: internal conflict, temptation, and willpower. The very term "self-control" implies that the trade-offs between immediate gratification and long-run benefits entail a conflict that is not present in a choice between a white shirt and a blue one. When modeling choice under such circumstances the concept of temptation must be incorporated because of the obvious fact that some situations are more tempting than others. A model of saving that omits temptation is misspecified. The term willpower represents the real psychic costs of resisting temptation. The behavioral life cycle hypothesis modifies the standard life cycle model to incorporate these features. To capture formally the notion of internal conflict between the rational and emotional aspects of an individual's personality, we employ a dual preference structure. Individuals are assumed to behave as if they have two sets of coexisting and mutually inconsistent preferences: one concerned with the long run, and the other with the short run. We refer to the former as the planner and the latter as the doer. To place the preceding concepts into a formal structure consider an individual whose lifetime extends over T periods, with the final period representing retirement. The lifetime income stream is given by y. For simplicity we assume a perfect capital market and zero real rate of interest. Let retirement income be zero.
p.611


p. 636-638

CONCLUSION

The LC model is clearly in the mainstream tradition of microeconomic theory. It is typical of the general approach in microeconomics, which is to use a normative-based maximizing model for descriptive purposes. The recent papers by Hall and Mishkin (1982) and Courant et al. (1986) are really advances in the LC tradition.
Our model is quite different in spirit. First of all, our agents have very human limitations, and they use simple rules of thumb that are, by nature, second-best. While the LC model is a special case of our model (when either a first-best rule exists or ther is no self-control problem), our model was developed specifically to describe actual behavior, not to characterize rational behavior. It differs from a standard approach in three important ways.
(1) It is consistent with behavior that cannot be reconciled with a single utility function.
(2) It permits "irrelevant" factors (i.e., those other than age and wealth) to affect consumption. Even the form of payment can matter.
(3) Actual choices can be strictly within the budget set (as a Christmas club).
The relationship between the self-control model and the LC model is similar to the relationship between Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky's (1979) prospect theory and expected utility theory. Expected utility theory [p.637] is a well- established standard for rational choice under uncertainty. Its failure to describe individual behavior has led to the development of other models (such as prospect theory) that appear to do a better job at the tasks of description and prediction. The superiority of prospect theory as a predictive model, of course, in no way weakens expected utility theory's value as a presciptive norm. Similarly, since we view the LC model as capturing the preferences of our planner, we do not wish to question its value to prescriptive economic theory. The LC model has also served an enormously useful role in providing the theory against which empirical evidence can be judged. For example, the one-to-one pension offset was a result derived from the LC model (without bequests), and the numerous studies we cite were no doubt stimulated by the opportunity to test this prediction. Saving adequacy even more directly requires a life-cycle criterion of appropriate saving with which actual saving can be compared.
At times we have argued that the use of ad hoc assumptions, added to the theory after the anomalous empirical evidence has been brought forward, renders the LC model untestable. It is reasonable to ask whether our model is testable. We think that it is. Every one of the propositions we examined in this paper represents a test our model might have failed. For example, if the estimated pension offsets were mostly close to -1.0 instead of mostly close to zero, we would have taken that as evidence that self-control problems are empirically unimportant. Similarly, the effects of bonuses on saving could have been negligible, implying that mental accounting has little to add.
Other tests are also possible. Our theory suggests the following additional propositions.
PREDICTION 8. Holding lifetime income constant, home ownership will increase retirement wealth.
PREDICTION 9. The marginal propensity to consume inheritance income will depend on the form in which the inheritance is received.
The more the inheritance resembles "income" rather than "wealth", the greater will be the MPC. Thus the MPC will be greater for cash than for stocks, and greater for stocks than for real estate.
PREDICTION 10. The marginal propensity to consume dividend income is greater than the marginal propensity to consume increases in the value of stock holdings.
We have not investigated the empirical validity of these propositions. We hope others who are skeptical of our theory will do so. Nevertheless, while we think that neither our theory nor the LC theory is empty, refutation is probably not the most useful way of thinking about the task at hand. It is easy to demonstrate that any theory in social science is wrong. (We do not believe that individuals literally have planners and doers, for example.) Negative results and counterexamples must be only a first step. This paper is [p.638] intended to be constructive rather than destructive, and to show that the consideration of self-control problems enables us to identify variables that are usually ignored in economic analyses but which have an important influence on behavior.


ABSTRACTS

Self-control, mental accounting, and framing are incorporated in a behavioral enrichment of the life-cycle theory of saving called the behavioral life-cycle hypothesis. The key assumption of the behavioral life-cycle theory is that households treat components of their wealth as nonfungible, even in the absence of credit rationing. Specifically, wealth is assumed to be divided into three mental accounts: current income, current assets, and future income. The temptation to spend is assumed to be greatest for current income and least for future income. Considerable empirical support for the behavioral life-cycle theory is presented, primarily drawn from published econometric studies. Copyright 1988 by Oxford University Press.

Wednesday, January 23, 2019

Utility Theory

Utility Theory

https://www.cs.ubc.ca/~kevinlb/teaching/cs532l%20-%202013-14/Lectures/Utility%20Theory.pdf
A utility function is a real-valued function that indicates how much agents like an outcome.
In the presence of uncertainty, rational agents act to maximize their expected utility.
Utility is a foundational concept in game theory.
But it is a nontrivial claim:
1 Why should we believe that an agent's preferences can be adequately represented by a single number?
2 Why should agents maximize expectations rather than some other criterion?
Von Neumann and Morgenstern's theorem shows why (and when!) these are true.
It is also a good example of some common elements in game theory (and economics):
Behaving \as-if"
Axiomatic characterization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann%E2%80%93Morgenstern_utility_theorem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility
http://static.luiss.it/hey/microeconomia/book/Ch21.pdf
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/257028?journalCode=jpe


https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24099287_Assessment_of_Attribute_Importances_and_Consumer_Utility_Functions_Von_Neumann-Morgenstern_Theory_Applied_to_Consumer_Behavior

CONCLUSION

This initial application of vN-M utility theory indicates that consumer measurement is feasible, psychological attributes can be included, and empirical results were equal to or better than two competing approaches. These are encouraging results because this implies vN-M utility theory's attractive features of modeling risk, indifference measurement, and identification of practical form have potential for application in consumer research.

Von Neumann-Morgenstern utility theory can be a valuable tool for understanding and predicting consumer behavior. It can be most effective if: (1) risk aversion and interaction phenomena are deemed to be important in the consumer's behavior, (2) a sufficient budget is available for the personal interviews, (3) individual utility parameters are important to the research or managerial question, and (4) consumers are well educated. It is particularly effective if the number of decision-makers is small and the choice decision large. For example, purchase of large computers, aircraft, automated machine tools, or other industrial products might be good applications. Other useful examples might be consumer durables, such as washer / dryers or automobiles. In services it might be applicable to health care, college selection, and career selection.

Several future areas of research are appropriate. Our application acknowledges measurement error, but does not explicitly include it in parameter estimation. Research is needed to allow degrees of freedom and to develop distributional assumptions for parameter estimation. The utility and conjoint axioms appear compatible, but research is needed to develop a common set of consistent axioms. Needed also are statistical tests of assumptions so that confidence limits can be set for the repeated lottery and tradeoff questions used in testing utility and preferential independence.

Another topic is the development of more efficient measurement techniques, thus allowing some combination of more complexity, more attributes, or more assumption testing. A final need is to develop simpler measurement methods. Our sample was MIT students. Von Neumann-Morgenstern utility theory requires further testing to determine whether an average respondent could accurately answer lottery questions, even with careful training.

Ecological Models of Human Development

http://impactofspecialneeds.weebly.com/uploads/3/4/1/9/3419723/ecologial_models_of_human_development.pdf
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1994)
International Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. 3, 2nd. Ed. Oxford: Elsevier.
NY: Freeman.

Urie Bronfenbrenner argues that in order to understand human development, one must consider the entire ecological system in which growth occurs. This system is composed of five socially organized subsystems that help support and guide human growth. They range from the microsystem, which refers to the relationship between a developing person and the immediate environment, such as school and family, to the macrosystem, which refers to institutional patterns of culture, such as the economy, customs, and bodies of knowledge.

1. A microsystem is a pattern of activities, social roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given face-to-face setting with particular physical, social, and symbolic features that invite, permit, or inhibit engagement in sustained, progressively more complex interaction with, and activity in, the immediate environment. Examples include such settings as family, school, peer group, and workplace.

2. The mesosystem comprises the linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings containing the developing person (e.g., the relations between home and school, school and workplace, etc). In other words, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems.

3. The exosystem comprises the linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings, at least one of which does not contain the developing person, but in which events occur that indirectly influence processes within the immediate setting in which the developing person lives (e.g., for a child, the relation between the home and the parent's workplace; for a parent, the relation between the school and the neighborhood peer group).

4. The macrosystem consists of the overarching pattern of micro-, meso-, and exosystems characteristic of a given culture or subculture, with particular reference to the belief systems, bodies of knowledge, material resources, customs, life-styles, opportunity structures, hazards, and life course options that are embedded in each of these broader systems. The macrosystem may be thought of as a societal blueprint for a particular culture or subculture.

5. A chronosystem encompasses change or consistency over time not only in the characteristics of the person but also of the environment in which that person lives (e.g., changes over the life course in family structure, socioeconomic status, employment, place of residence, or the degree of hecticness and ability in everyday life).

Saturday, January 5, 2019

Book quote: Sources for Islamic law accepted by various schools of thought


Many general principles appear in the reference books of jurisprudence but here we will only discuss thirty:
1. Possession indicates ownership
2. The principle of permissibility
3. The principle of validity
4. The principle of purity
5. Islamic law does not occasion harm
6. Islamic law does not occasion unbearable hardship
7. Certainty is not challenged by doubt
8. When a text is clear, interpretations are unacceptable
9. Liability for damage
10. Avoidance of disadvantage has priority over considerations of benefit
11. Rulings regarding conflicts in evidence
12. Table of priorities
13. Casting lots
14. Ends do not justify means
15. Contracts are based upon the intentions of participating parties
16. Not to cooperate in the perpetration of sinful actions
17. Those who have been deceived are entitled to redress
18. Actions undertaken with good intent do not incur liability
19. Nursling nurture establishes ties equivalent to blood relationships
20. Reliance on the muslim market
21. Invalid terms and conditions of contract
22. Custom circumscribes religious rulings
23. Summary knowledge is as binding as detailed knowledge
24. Persistent doubts are to be ignored
25. All liquids that cause intoxication are considered impure
26. Inability to fulfill a religious duty does not absolve one from obligation
27. Dissimulation and its manifestations
28. The execution of a will has precedence over distribution of assets
29. Speculative analogies do not provide valid bases
30. Changes of circumstance lead to changes in rulings

p. 14-15
Thirty Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. Ayatollah Sayyid Fadhel Hosseini Milani. Recorded and edited by Amar Hegedus. Ansariyan Publications. Iran. First edition by Islam in Englis Press London. 2011.
http://ijtihadnet.com/wp-content/uploads/5795.pdf